Accounting and financial history Essay

Accounting and financial history Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many people have spent their entire lives doing research on the development of accounting and also the financial history. Economic sector is the stronghold of every country and that is why the research has been taken seriously. Accounting has taken different phases in its development and each phase have a significant meaning to the todays accounting process. The development has been influenced greatly by major economic, political and social events that affected the world in the past centuries. Different periods have also influenced the development of accounting, business and financial history. Every event that has been happening in the world has led accounting to another level in terms of development. Some of the events were negative while some were positive but they all influenced the development of accounting positively and that is what people enjoy accounting in the current time. Accounting and financial history is interconnected with e vents and periods and thus one cannot separate the two while studying this history. Different countries have different accounting history although there are some international events that had influenced more than one country and that means that they have the same accounting and financial history. The object of the paper is to discuss an event on accounting, business or financial history and its relevance for today. See more: Foot Binding In China essay Recognition and development of accounting as a profession in United States (1900-1920)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In early 1895, there were many companies and corporations in the United States industry and they were both big and small. The market could not accommodate the big numbers of the corporations and companies and thus the only solution to this problem was to merge them in order to regulate their number. This process eventually happened form 1895 to 1900 where many companies merged and formed few big companies. A good example is the tube company which was formed after merging many companies that were producing tubes. The many tubes companies formed one large company which had a lot of operations in it and that is where the issue of accounting got involved (Charles, 1992 p.2).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While the companies were small, they were calculating their financial results manually without any level of professionalism. However, the process of merging those companies and corporations made the companies and corporations to have a lot of operations and they needed a professional system of accounting. They were in need of more auditors to work on the financial operations in those companies because the financial status of the companies had gone up and they could no longer depend on the manual or outdated methods of accounting. Some companies that were merging were from diverse locations and thus they were forced to open some branches where they could manage all the accounting processes and auditing of all financial statements for all the companies that were merging (Stephan, 2003 p. 200). Also the number of auditors was increased while some auditors operated on mobile bases, they could move from one company to another because the demand was very high.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another change that occurred in accounting due to the merging of companies was the effect of the third party in the accounting operations. Some companies that had merged had holdings companies while others were under the control of banks. The introduction of the third party meant that there was another party which would be interested in the financial records of a company (Christopher, 2009 p. 40). Banks would send their auditor to calculate the financial records of the company under control and thus the accounting system in the company was improved in order to improve accuracy. Involvement of another party meant that there was more work in the accounting and it required a high level of professionalism, and that took the accounting system to another level. Some companies would elect other companies as holding and they were responsible of auditing the financial records of the company because they were stakeholders of the company. In 1909, th e congress passed a law that abolished the income tax but it introduced franchise tax. Franchise tax law required companies to pay their income tax to the government; this meant that they were supposed to present their annual financial statements to the government. They were forced to calculate their expenses and their income in order to come up with the right amount which would be taxed. This regulation required the company to have a complex and well-established accounting system. The auditor’s from the governments were also required to calculate and evaluate the financial statements of those companies in order to ensure that they were true. This event took accounting to another level of professionalism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After the introduction of franchise tax, there were no oppositions from the company owners because the tax had very low rate. The congress saw it as a success on their side and that is where they introduced a direct tax in 1913, this tax had higher rate than the franchise but it did not make an impact on organization and thus it was appropriate to companies. In this decade is where the First World War was fought, this war had a massive impact on the financial status of United States and thus they decided to raise the tax rate of companies. The new tax rates that were introduced by the congress required companies to give their excess profits to the tax unit. To determine the excess profits of a company required a more professional accounting system. The government would carry out the accounting processes but the companies would also use their auditors to evaluate their financial statements for transparency and accuracy in accounting. The ar ticle gives a clear history of the two decades that marked the recognition and the growth of accounting in United States (Frost, 1994 p. 75).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The events that happened shaped the accounting system of the United States, the current accounting system is out of those events and the way they influenced the accounting system. Currently, companies have a complex accounting system which ensures accurate financial statements of those companies. The historical event introduced an idea where a company had more than one auditor and that is what is there currently in companies. Companies especially the larger ones or the ones that merge employ more than one auditor, this is because they have many financial operations and there are more government’s regulations that require financial records of every company.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Companies currently are operating on diversified bases and thus they have inherited an accounting system where they have established accounting branches in different places. These branches are there for the purpose of accounting only. This idea was inherited form the historical event of accounting in United States. The branches are conducted by professional auditors from the high level accounts schools that were introduced in United States. However, there are some branches of accounting that are introduced by private agencies and thus they are not owned by any company. Some companies which do not have auditors or they figure employing auditors to be expensive than hiring, they prefer taking their financial statements to the accounting branches. Other companies prefer to employ private auditors to do their accounting operations. The decisions of these companies are influenced by the history of accounting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Banks have been involved more on accounting operations in a greater way because of the influence during the 1900 to 1920 era. Banks have their auditors; this is because banks and companies have become one entity. Companies currently cannot operate without the assistance of banks. Companies require financial assistance and also accounting and financial advice from banks and in order to receive all that, banks must assess the financial status of the company and this is done through accounting process. This concept of accounting has helped many companies avoid serious financial problems but the original idea was from the 1900 to 1920 merging event. Government has also been influenced by this event where the tax system that was put in action during that time is still the same even today although some terms have been changed. The tax Unit in United States have established an auditors unit that is concerned with assessment of financial records o f different companies in order to evaluate the tax rates and the financial stands of different companies. The whole concept of government involvement with the financial issues of companies is as a result of the 1913 events of company taxations. Currently, government has the responsibility of annual assessment of all companies’ financial records in order to determine the taxation criteria to use (Maher, 2001 p. 300). Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, accounting history of United States was greatly influenced by the political, social and economic situations in the country during the 1900 to 1920 era. The decision of companies to merge was the first step which marked professional recognition of accounting in United States, the issue of taxation during the same period marked the growth of accounting as profession in America. The two economic and political events influenced the current accounting system in a great way; the foundation of accounting system in United States was laid down by the two events that happened in 1900 and 1920. More research is being carried on to explore more on the accounting history in different countries. Reference Stephen A. Zeff. (2003). accounting profession in US: a review Article. Contemporary Accounting Research, 2(1), 189-205. doi:10.1111/j.1911-3846.1985.tb00607. Charles W. Wootton & Carel M. Wolk. (1992). Development of â€Å"the big eight† accounting firms in the United States, 1900-1990.: a Review Article. Accounting And Business Research, 9(36), 2. doi:10.1080/00014788.1979.9729170 Christopher J. Napier. (2009) Accounting Historiography: A Review Article. Journal Of Accounting Research, 1(2), 30-49. doi:10.2307/2489857 Frost, C., & Pownall, G. (1994). Accounting Disclosure Practices in the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal Of Accounting Research, 32(1), 75. doi:10.2307/2491388 Maher, M. (2001). The Evolution of Management Accounting Research in the United States. The British Accounting Review, 33(3), 293-305. doi:10.1006/bare.2001.0170 Links http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ruf.rice.edu%2F~sazeff%2FPDF%2FHorizons%2C%2520Part%2520I%2520%2528print%2529.pdf&ei=c53DVIq3HYOeygOhqoC4BQ&usg=AFQjCNHK0-fuRjxIaFx_Fhcm2irkeq0npg&sig2=Hbe-1XbRhXAfEQ1x7J7YEQ&bvm=bv.84349003,d.bGQhttp://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDYQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fpure.rhul.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F9726813%2FNapier_Accounting_Historiography_Chapter_Final_Version.docx&ei=nZ3DVKCoM8fnywOW4oCQBQ&usg=AFQjCNF2TMA5Taow8bGh8IloT-akHFw_4w&sig2=YTqKJ_Jlv6iLFqsJYzkMjA&bvm=bv.84349003,d.bGQhttp://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB8QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fclio.lib.olemiss.edu%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Faah%2Fid%2F11128&ei=hJ7DVLHeOsGrU-SUhMAI&usg=AFQjCNGrQQW06W5SPOdjzoGajkftCRYMZQ&sig2=A3u6u9KN-zhmqfg2LH7ARA&bvm=bv.84349003,d.d24 Source document

Economic Class

Economic â€Å"Class† † What barriers make it difficult for the poor to change their economic class? † There are several examples that can be given and this paper will outline some of the reasoning. Barriers can be anything from inherited social standings, to birth wealth, or even geographical locations, even to the amount of funding for extracurricular activity, racial and gender domination are also a barrier. There are many different things causing there to be barriers causing it hard for people to change the barrier of economic class.Keeping a good social standard is sometimes difficult to sustain, making it hard to change. Author Gregory Mantsios â€Å"Class in America† in 2003, has many different ideas on the way economic class is. Social standings and consequently life chances are largely determined at birth. Individuals who have gone from rags to riches abound in the mass media, statistics on class mobility show these leaps to be extremely rare (Mants ios711). Most economic success is because of the wealth that these individuals receive at birth. Over 66 percent of the consumer units with incomes of $100,000 or more have inherited assets (Mantsios711).In the stories that are read in most cases there is more wealth due to being born into it than earning it by hard work. Most people do not choose to be put into an economic class; rather it happens on its own. If someone grows up knowing only low income or having very little as a child, they seem to carry that on with them as they get older. It is hard to go from something you’re used to all your life to something so different. Poverty is a very difficult barrier to overcome, no matter where someone is from or where they now live. Author Diana George â€Å"Changing the Faces of Poverty: Nonprofits and the Problem of Representation†. 001 writes, â€Å"You don’t have to leave your own country to find third-world poverty. † (George623). Most groups that are asking for money to help the starving children are usually in a different country. As people see Children, Inc. showing photos of children that make people feel helplessness for. People want to help solve the hunger issues by sending money but sometimes feel uneasy with doing it because we are afraid that the money is not always going for what these people think it is. Habitat for Humanity helps individuals here in the United States to get back on their feet and try to overcome a barrier of no food or places to live.Habitat for Humanity aims to eliminate poverty housing from the globe (George 625). Being in small cities is also sometimes a barrier to overcome because there are not as many jobs or access to jobs. There are run down houses that people without jobs, find it hard to find the funding to do upkeep on them. Poverty condemns millions of people throughout the world to live in deplorable and inhuman conditions. These people are trapped in a cycle of poverty, living in places offering little protection from the rain, wind and cold (George 626). Living in run down houses causes many different illnesses and can cause death as well.It is hard seeing young people living in this situation as well as older people. Finding better housing is something most people strive for. It is just more difficult when not living in a better neighborhood with better housing. Author Peter Singer â€Å"The Singer Solution to World Poverty†, writes, an American household with an income of $50,000 spends around $30,000 annually on necessities, according to the Conference Board, a nonprofit economic research organization, (Singer 879). Therefore, for a household bringing in $50,000 a year, donations to help the world’s poor should be as close as possible to $20,000 (Singer 879).When living in run down areas, and communities with having no means to improve, makes it very hard to change. For some people seeing others doing things they would love to do and know they can not, makes some people feel hopeless and gives them thoughts of never being able to change. Approximately 12 percent of American population-that is, nearly one of every eight people in this country-live below the official poverty line (calculated in 2001 at $9,214 for an individual and $17,960 for a family of four). Among the poor are over 2. million homeless, including nearly 1 million homeless children (Mantsios 701). At last count, nearly 33 million Americans across the nation lived in unrelenting poverty (Mantsios 703). Having extracurricular activities make it hard for poorer people than more wealthy. Some people go to private schools, where they have many options for fun and activities after school. Having options like taking different language classes after, going to sleep away camps, some with sons of ambassadors and children of doctors. Going on family vacations regularly, two or three times a year is more than likely.They know ahead of time that they will most definitely g et into a very good college with or without scholarships with ambitions to be president. As for others, go to a small to medium public school where most options are very little. Going to a YMCA day camp is the most camping experience a lot of poorer people get to experience. They are children of hard working individuals in factory’s and school employees. This is how several of them get to do sports as well. They have ambitions to be presidents as well as school teachers.Racial and gender issues stop people from going farther in life than they would like as well. Racial and gender domination are other forces that hold people down (Mantsios 712). Women experience the effects of sexism whether they are well-paid professional or poorly paid clerks. As women, they face discrimination and male domination, as well as catcalls and stereotyping (Mantsios 712). Similarly, a wealthy black man faces racial oppression, is subjected to racial slurs, and is denied opportunities because of h is color (Mantsios 712). The experience of women and minorities are differentiated along class lines.Although they are subordinate positions vis-a-vis white men, the particular issues that confront women and minorities maybe quite different depending on their position in the class structure (Mansios 712-713). Class -oppressed men, whether they are white or black, have privileges afforded them as men in a sexist society. Similarly, class-oppressed whites, whether they are men or women, benefit from white privilege in a racist society. In today’s society, people would think that this would not be an issue anymore, but it seems to still be problems with it.Oppression is cumulative, and those who are poor, black, and female are often subject to all of the forces of class, race and gender discrimination simultaneously (Mantsios 713). It seems that if you are a black woman that you would be in a lower class than a white female. Being female and of ethnic race you would be considere d in the lower class and that causes many issues for someone to succeed. Being in a society that does goes by classes has caused many issues for several classes to succeed in a position that is very wanted.Americans judge too many people, and it does show that it can be a major barrier for someone to get past. No one likes for others to know their situations, people try to hide things from others so that no one know if they are in the lower class. Trying to fit in is something that most Americans allow themselves to do. Everyone wants to be considered in the same category of class. Why do people judge so much and why do they say and do hurtful things to people that are in a lower class than themselves? It is just how the human race is and more than likely will always be.It has been this way for many years and will continue to do so. Some people are raised in many different levels of human nature, and it grows with each individual as they become adults, but looking down on someone an d belittling them, all because they are not as rich as them, or have as many material things as they do needs to come to a stop. That causes too many people to stop trying to overcome obstacles in their way to make a better life for themselves and their families. Getting out of a rut is a hard thing to accomplish. This is a major barrier to overcome. Works Cited George, Diana. Changing the Face of Poverty: Nonprofits and the Problem of Representation. † 2001. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings. Ed. Richard Bullock and Maureen Daly Goggin. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2010. 622-33. Print. Mantsios, Gregory. â€Å"Class in America-2003. † 2004. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings. Ed. Richard Bullock and Maureen Daly Goggin. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2010. 697-717. Print. Singer, Peter. â€Å"The Singer Solution to World Poverty. † 2009. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings. Ed. Richard Bullock and Maureen Daly Goggin. 2nd ed. New Y ork: Norton, 2010. 873-80. Print.

Evolution and revolution as organizations grow

Evolution and revolution as organizations grow Growing organization move through 5 phases of development, each of which contains a relatively calm period of growth that ends with a management crisis. Each developmental phase is strongly influenced by the previous one. Thus by knowing an organization's development history it is possible to be more prepared for the next developmental crisis. These crises can be used in order to achieve future growth.Evolution- long periods of growth with no major organizational problem Revolution- crisis periods, where companies need to find solutions to newly occurred rganizational problems Phasel : Creativity This developmental phase is a period of evolution. At its birth stage an organization focuses on creating a product and a market. So the company's founders are entirely focused on making and selling a new product. They don't focus on management activities. Communication among employees is informal. Long hours of work are rewarded by modest salar ies.The control of activities comes from marketplace feedback. As the company grows the first revolution period occurs: the leadership crisis: Increased number of employees, needs of additional capital and new accounting rocedures demand new management responsibilities. So the first critical development choice is to find and install a strong business manager who is acceptable to the founders and who can pull the organization together. Phase 2: Direction Those companies that survive the first phase by installing a good business manager embark on another evolutionary period.A function organizational structure is introduced. Different business activities occur. Job assignments become more specialized. Accounting systems are introduced. Incentives, budgets and work standards are adopted. Communication becomes more formal. New managers take the managing responsibility while lower level supervisors act as tunctional specialists However these techniques become eventually inappropriate for controlling a larger and more complex organization.This is when the second revolution occurs: the autonomy crisis: Lower-level employees find themselves restricted. They feel being torn between following procedures and taking initiative on their own. So lower level managers demand more autonomy. The solution adopted by many companies is to move toward greater delegation. Yet it is difficult for top managers to give up esponsibility. And lower-level managers are not accustomed for making decisions for themselves.As a result many companies struggle during this revolutionary period, because many lower level employees leave the organization since they stick to centralized methods. Phase 3: Delegation The next evolution period evolves from the successful application of decentralized organization structure. Much greater responsibility is given to lower-level managers. Bonuses are used to stimulate motivation Top executives manage by exception based on periodic reports from the fieldManage ment focuses on new gains, which can be lined up beside other decentralized units However a serious problem eventually occur: the control crisis: when top executives feel that they are loosing control over a highly diversified field operation because of autonomous field managers. In order to move ahead companies need to find a new solution in the use of special coordination techniques. Phase 4: Coordination During this phase the evolutionary period occurs by the use of formal systems for acheveing greater coordination and by top executives taking responsibility for the dministration of these new systems.Decentralized units are turned into product groups Many staff personnel are hired to control and review line managers Capital expenses are carefully weighed and distributed across the organization Each product group is treated as an investment center Certain technical functions are centralized at headquarters, while daily operating decisions remain decentralized. Stock options and co mpanywide profit sharing are used to encourage identity with the firm as a whole. All these new coordination systems prove useful for achieving growth through more fficient allocation of a company's limited resources.But lack of confidence builds between line and staff and between headquarters and the field. This is where red- tape crisis is created. Organizations have become too large and complex to be managed through formal programs and rigid systems. ase 5: Collaboration The last phase gives importance to strong interpersonal collaboration in order to overcome the red-tape crisis. This evolution phase builds around a flexible and behavioral approach to management. The focus is on solving problems through team action.Teams are combined through task group activity Headquarters staff experts are reduced and are combined into teams to consult with team units Previous formal systems are simplified Educational programs for teamwork and behavioral skills are introduced Team performance becomes more important Experiences in new practices are encouraged The revolution after the 5th stage of evolution is still unclear. Predictions have been made that the employees will eventually become exhausted by the intensity of teamwork and the pressure for innovative solutions.

How can we make globalization something that brings prosperity to Essay

How can we make globalization something that brings prosperity to everyone - Essay Example Finally, the paper concludes with an overview of the aforementioned issues, in particular, the results of the critical evaluation based on the featured theoretical perspective while highlighting the positive impacts of on overall globalization. Keywords, Tranformationalist, Globalization, Satellite, and age, Global Village, Global politics, Global economy and Culture Tansformatiomationlist Theoretical Perspective on Globalization The transformationalist theoretical perspective offers a deep insight into the globalization debates. In its view, globalization is something that is occurring and is changing the face of modern societies, however while the change is occurring many aspects remain the same (Mozaffari 34). Transformationalists still see nation states as retaining much power to steer their own course in the global economy. For instance, while the global capitalist system cuts across most parts of the globe; many nations retain the power to determine their own taxation and econo mic policies. On the political platform, rather than being consumed by a system of global governance where sovereignty and power are eroded by global institution, transformationlists suggests that governments are compelled to adapt an active and outward stance towards governance within the complex conditions of globalization (Heywood 45). This view suggests that nations have to adapt and interact with new Institutions, social movements, and international bodies on a global level and rather than lose power many nations are adapting to this process. On a cultural level, transformationlist see a two-way dynamic happening where global migration telecommunication and mass media are contributing to the diffusion of cultural influences (Giddens 50). From this perspective, whilst the western cultural aspects penetrate many regions across the globe as depicted in Coke and McDonalds, there are counter flows of non-western cultural aspects, which is evidenced by the increasing number of foreig n restaurants in major cities and towns across the globe. This scenario is seen in the satellite and age where the spread of information on an intercultural basis is rapidly taking shape. Ideally, the world is experiencing a cultural exchange in a two-way traffic. Critical Analysis Suddenly, the world appears to have turned into a small place as people can connect and learn of information and events happening in distant places. The optimistic term â€Å"a global village,† coined in the early 1990 refers to the world, becoming, more integrated and hence resembling a village, where people have constant interactions and often depend on one another for survival. Globalization is a product, which has been made possible through the introduction of some important technological innovations including the . The appearance of undoubtedly contributed much to globalization. Today, the affects Globalization in many aspects. Ideally, it imparts the three dimensions of Globalization cultural , economic, and political (Modelski 32). In many respects, affects globalization. Some of the components are cultural and business aspects connecting many people across the globe and the governance of the . globalization relates closely to Transformationslist theoretical perspective on globalization. Globalization relies on the profound transformation change and the major driving force

Unified Financial Accounting Standards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Unified Financial Accounting Standards - Essay Example Unified Financial Accounting Standards Indeed, since the modern business takes place in a global market, there is absolute need to define how to do business across all nations (Ingram, & Albright, 2007). As such, various organizations seek to establish different business and financial measures to define the universal manner of doing global business. Financial accounting standards are some of the measures, which all companies must comply with while doing business, assessing their progress, and reporting their success. Financial accounting standards seek to establish fairness, equality, uniformity, accuracy, and transparency in the preparation and presentation of financial statements. As such, financial accounting standards must be clearly understandable and comparable so that the users can apply them effectively. The accounting profession adopted the generally accepted accounting principles, which defines universal reporting principle in the global market (Ingram, & Albright, 2007). Financial accounting standards derive ma ny merits in the business field and various users rely on financial accounting standards to perfume their business and accounting responsibilities. The users may include investors, companies, and auditors. This paper defines the characteristics of the unified financial accounting standards and discusses the benefits of unified financial accounting standards to investors, companies, and auditors with reference to preparing, reporting, and comparing the financial performance in the modern global market. The unified financial accounting standards have certain characteristics, which guarantee accurate and material communication of the business firm’s financial position and performance. ... These characteristics include reliability, transparency, relevance, consistency, comparability, understandability, uniformity, and fairness. The unified financial accounting standards derive significant benefits to the investors. Most assuredly, the unified financial accounting standards make it easy for investors to compare between companies since they can establish the true financial position of the reference companies. This is usually important especially when the investor is a foreign company since the financial standards apply universally globally. It is quite clear that unified financial accounting standards provide a means of communication between a company and the investors in the company. Through unified financial accounting standards, the investors can deduce the effectiveness of the company and its management in comparison to other companies in the same industry (Financial Accounting Standards Board, 2013). In addition, the unified financial accounting standards avail rele vant financial information that helps the investors to make concrete decisions in reference to the company. Indeed, the investors use this financial information to assess the effectiveness in implementing the company resources by the management. Actually, it is from the information that the investors decide whether to invest in the company since the financial information can manifest the profitability, the competitive position, the going concern, and viability of the company in the stock market. More so, the unified financial accounting standards define the accrued returns of the company to the investors. At the same time, the financial standards evaluate the cost of making accounting changes and derive the benefit of

Global Warming - Is it the Biggest hoax we have ever faced Thesis

Global Warming - Is it the Biggest hoax we have ever faced - Thesis Example Yet, having bravely asserted their views, these dissenting voices have put an almost accepted fact into a much-heated debate: Is global warming real or a hoax? Unfortunately though, a debate over a scientific issue has become more political and economic rather than scientific. Science has been manipulated. Data are selectively included or excluded to make it appear that global warming is a real threatening problem, purposely, to justify preordained policy preferences. (Avery 1) Thus the questions of the day continue: Is global warming real that people and nations should prepare for doomsday? Is global warming man-made that humanity should pay for it by disusing fossil fuels or is it the biggest hoax humanity has ever faced? These are the interrelated questions which this research study would like to examine and shed light into by going through an intensive review of researches and studies done by authorities of the issue. This study is significant and relevant for the obvious reason that its impact to humanity is too great, as it is affecting almost all aspects of human lives. To start with, it would be necessary to define the issue and how it came to be. Global warming as implied by the term itself â€Å"is an increase in the average temperature of Earths surface† (Mastrandrea & Schneider, par. 1). The average temperature of the Earth is about 13oC or 56 oF (Sagan 1984) to 15 oC or 59 oF (Hart 2005) (qtd. in Tang, par. 2). How global warming has been discovered is a matter of history that has never been clear. Nevertheless, Weart accounts that it was only in 1896 that global warming was discovered by a forlorn Swedish scientist. However, it was regarded only as a mere concept that is fantastic and impossible. Then in 1950, global warming was taken seriously by few scientists in California appraising it as a possibility – a risk that could occur in distant future. This distant future finally

Blogs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Blogs - Essay Example However, what we miss to realize is that those who fail to make a good impression does not necessarily translate to someone’s real potential at something. Just like today’s notion of a not so service-centric yet title focused notion of leadership, I would say that this diminishes the impact of leadership to people & society as a whole. What society misconstrues is that it looks at leadership closely based on what it is called, highlighting the role of being a â€Å"leader† instead of looking at it as a responsibility of being able to lead a group with different capacities, beliefs & personalities. With this said, I would say that the most effective leader is measured not only based on whether a certain goal is achieved but most importantly, how one imparted wisdom & helped each member of a team to perform significantly in a group. As it is said, it is not only the destination that counts, but also the journey where all the learning happens. The first clear shot each of us had on leadership would probably be in school when we are required to work in groups for a certain project. Though each of us have different experiences what is common to all would be the fact that in the real world, some people would have to take on the role of a leader while others as followers. Though a lot of us still have not learned to appreciate the beauty of a follower’s role, one of the things that we might miss from focusing too much on taking the role of a leader would be the fact that being a follower intensely shapes one’s character more than being a leader. Why? Well, first of all, being a follower which is invisibly looked down on in society would teach one to be humble especially when one gets his or her first run on obedience. Aside from which, what makes it even harder would be when you encounter a situation where your adrenaline knows deep down that your idea is better than what is being presented but you have to submit just because

The poverty in the world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The poverty in the world - Essay Example The author also notes that the global food crisis affects mostly poor people – who have to spend most or all of their income on food. Using various examples of extreme weather events worldwide, the author argues that political or economic decisions may be related to the food crisis, but their role in the rapid expansion of the crisis can be doubted; rather the weather, as affected by the increased pollution, should be characterized as the main cause of the global food crisis. The views of the author, as briefly presented above, are critically discussed and evaluated using appropriate literature, i.e. academic studies which focus on the global food crisis. 2. Issues discussed in the paper – presentation and analysis In the article under analysis, Krugman aims to present the key causes of the global food crisis. ... However, extreme weather events - recent ones - in specific countries are used in order to prove the relationship between the global financial crisis and the specific events. More specifically, reference is made to the fires in Russia, the flooding in Australia and the dry weather in Brazil. It is noted that extreme weather events are more likely to influence the food prices – compared to the commodity prices, which cannot have an impact, in accordance with Krugman, on the food prices. However, no data or relevant reports are used for supporting the specific view. Instead, the events are mentioned followed by the personal views of the author, without using appropriate literature or findings of research made on the specific issue. The key point of the article is that the global climate change which has led to natural phenomena such as the La Nina, is the key cause of the global food crisis and for this reason the claims that ‘Ben Bernanke has blood on his hands’ (K rugman, p.1 & 3) should be opposed as non-valid. Instead, measures should be taken in order to control the global food crisis that, in accordance with Krugman, is expected to further expand, as a result of the increase of greenhouse gases. 3. Evaluation of the author’s perspective In accordance with the issues discussed above, the global food crisis, as expanded quite rapidly in the international community is quite difficult to be controlled, mostly because it is related to events that cannot be foreseen and they are quite difficult to be confronted. In fact, no matter the technology available, certain of these events, cannot be managed, like in the case of fires in Russia and the flooding in Australia

Technology and Social Media Communication Analysis Essay

Technology and Social Media Communication Analysis - Essay Example Analysis of Various Technologies and Social Media Communication Tools The conception of social media can be defined as an effective process of communicating with other. It is often viewed to be a medium of social interaction. The various technologies for communication include televisions, computer systems along with the medium of internet and mobile phones (The states of Queensland, 2006). Conversely, the various tools of social media comprise different online websites such as Twitter, YouTube, Flickr and Facebook among others (The International Association of Assessing Officers, 2009). Intended Purpose of Using Technologies and Social Media Communication Tools The major purpose of using different technologies and social media communication tools is to build effective communication with different users in the community. The technologies and the different social media tools can be viewed as effective business tools for several organizations by which they can promote their valuable pro ducts by a significant level (Brand Protect Inc., 2010). . Strength One of the chief strengths of employing various technologies and different social media tools is that these aspects possess greater accessibility of varied information. It has been apparently observed that the different business organization use the tools of social media for growing their brand awareness, improving sales and most importantly attaining significant competitive position over the chief business market competitors. Thus, it can be stated that the different tools related to social media strengthens the financial viability of the organizations (Brand Protect Inc., 2010). Weakness One of the chief weaknesses of using effective technologies and different tools of social media is time consumption. The tools might take much time to navigate the required information relating to any subject matter (Brand Protect Inc., 2010). Ethical Consideration With regard to the ethical consideration, the business corporation s along with the government should remain much conscious about the misuse of different tools of social media that might impose unfavorable effects upon the community (Eid, 2009). Existing Norms and Protocols One of the significant norms of social media is maintaining the privacy of accessing different information of the users. The various business organizations or the individuals should prioritize this important social norm concerning privacy as well as protecting their respective profiles in order to share their information in an organized manner (Talking Climate, 2012). In relation to the social norms, it has been viewed that one of the major protocols of social media is registration. In this similar context, the business organizations should follow the Code of Conduct relating to social norms while performing business operational functions. Moreover, the legislations such as the ‘Data Protection Act 1998’, ‘Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000’ an d ‘Telecommunications Regulations 2000’ can act as significant protocols for social media. These protocols relating to social media facilitate investigating and detecting the unauthorized usage of different telecommunication systems such as internet usage. The business organizations or any individuals are advised to follow the social media norms as well as protocols in order to share

Judicial Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Judicial Review - Essay Example Who will then protect the ordinary citizen from suffering from the wrath of the angry Queen of Hearts and give them a chance to have their cases reconsidered and to achieve procedural and substantive justice Our saviour is of course the remedy of Judicial Review which has become more of an eye sore to the Executive in the yester decades as the Judiciary continues to "check and balance" an unruly, highly political executive particularly after the new Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and the not so recent Human Rights Act 1998 which seems to have absorbed in the veins of judicial activism and recent case law with much ease. This Paper explores the process of judicial review of administrative action in the United Kingdom in the context of its constitutional significance. ... migration and Terrorism law post 9/11 and 7/7).Although there have been attempts to circumvent the scope and effect of the doctrine of Judicial Review in the past ( Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission2) ,the most recent has been the notorious "ouster" clause in the Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants) Bill which has provoked an outcry from the human rights lobby and the constitutional law experts. Also significant is the role of the Human Rights Act 1998 which has to some extent resolved the debate whether judicial review should be based on common law or statute.3 Power must be Checked by Power4 The constitutional basis of Judicial review lies in the concept of "checks and balances" where as the actions of the members of the executive will be "checked" by the Judiciary to see whether they have gone beyond their "power" to prevent the arbitrary abuse of power. Traditionally the English approach to a systematisation of judicial review was remedial based and thus similar to the development of the prerogative writs5 which developed as personal requests by an individual to the King for the redressal of a wrong suffered by another individual.6The UK has no separate system of administrative courts (and the concept never found favour with the system either eversince the abolition of infamous prerogative Star Chamber).Thus the present administrative review system of England can be described as a body that combines both a substantive body of law containing grounds of review and a large number of administrative tribunals dealing with statutory appeals from decisions of public bodies. The subject of judicial review of administrative action thus requires a discussion of the role of the courts in devising and applying constraints to the exercise of

Operations Manager of a Manufacturing Plant Essay

Operations Manager of a Manufacturing Plant - Essay Example Finally, operations officers raise concerns about the inefficiency of production schedules. An in-depth look into all levels of operations isolates a possible core reason: there seem to be too many suppliers. Arrow Ahead needs to understand that the number of suppliers does not necessarily equal excellence in process management. Remembering that operations management requires the cautious supervision of processes in producing and distributing products and services, Arrow Ahead must review where else it may have failed to carefully manage their practices. A good hard look at the flow of the organization and how each stage of the process come into play will benefit and ultimately restore the health of Arrow Ahead. This in turn will ensure that the company will stay efficiently afloat in the industry for a long period of time. Having established that Arrow Ahead has overbooked suppliers, the first step is to analyze how supply is being managed. As it is possible that the company has booked different suppliers for a singular purpose but for various reasons, there is a need to review all the suppliers they work with and create a shortlist based on Arrow Ahead’s experience with each one. Has this supplier always delivered on time? Is the quality of goods, materials, or services consistently excellent? Do they operate on sound commercial principles? Does working with this specific supplier minimize purchasing risks? If there has been any chance that the supplier was issued corrective action by the company, did they work on it? Would the company rate the relationship with the supplier highly? The responses to these questions will help Arrow Ahead develop a preliminary strategy that is proportionate to the impact they would like on operations. However, this is only an initial step towards solid supply management. The next phase would be to continuously monitor the performance of each supplier, in order to predict when something may threaten the

How to Identify a Target Market Essay Example for Free

How to Identify a Target Market Essay In this part of my P2 course work, I have been asked to identify the target market by preparing an information pack about the target market, for my potential investors and also make a good question for my business survey. Market Research Market Research is a systematic, objective collection and analysis of data about a particular target market, competition, and/or environment. It always incorporates some form of data collection whether it is secondary research (often referred to as desk research) or primary research which is collected direct from a respondent. Purpose of Market Research The purpose of any market research project is to achieve an increased understanding of the subject matter. With markets throughout the world becoming increasingly more competitive, market research is now on the agenda of many organisations, whether they are large or small. Market research is also one of the most important pieces to your marketing plan that will determine how you will speak with these customers, where to find them, how to best convert them into your customer and retain them as a customer. There are two types of market research 1. Primary research / Field 2. Secondary research / Desk Primary Research When marketers conduct research to collect original data for their own needs it is called primary research. This process has the marketer or someone working for the marketer designing and then carrying out a research plan. Primary research is also collected in a research â€Å"instrument† designed to record information for later analysis. Marketing researchers use many types of instruments from basic methods that record participant responses to highly advanced electronic measurement where research participants are connected to sophisticated equipment. Primary research also refers to information that is directly collected from the source. Another simple method of primary research would be to directly talk to your customers and get their feedback. Primary research can be both qualitative and quantitative. Method of primary research Questionnaire – Questionnaires are one the main tools in the use of field research. A questionnaire contains a series of questions which gather primary marketing research data for the business. A face-to-face questionnaire might include different questions to an emailed questionnaire. An interviewer will be filling in a face-to-face qu estionnaire and the person may be able to ask for the question to be rephrased if they do not understand it the first time. Online surveys- Increasingly popular and relatively low cost, online surveys are widely used by small businesses as a way of capturing the views of existing and potential customers. Face-to-face surveys Personal interviews conducted face-to-face is a costly, but good way to get detailed insights from an individual. Secondary Research Secondary research is a data that already exists and has been collected by someone else for another purpose. Secondary research involves the investigation of secondary sources of data. Sources of secondary data can come from within the firm itself – this is known as internal secondary data. External secondary data, on the other hand, is data that has been published by other organisations. Methods of secondary research Secondary Sources include journal articles, books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, reviews, newspaper articles, specific essays, etc. Most research papers are based on secondary sources as they build on the research or studies others have done. Its usually published in pamphlets, newsletters, trade publications, magazines, and newspapers. Secondary sources include the following: * Public sources. These are usually free, often offer a lot of good information, and include government departments, business departments of public libraries, and so on. * Commercial sources. These are valuable, but usually involve cost factors such as subscription and association fees. Commercial sources include research and trade associations, such as Dun Bradstreet and Robert Morris Associates, banks and other financial institutions, and publicly traded corporations. * Educational institutions. These are frequently overlooked as valuable information sources even though more research is conducted in  colleges, universities, and technical institutes than virtually any sector of the business community. My name is Mba Nduka Amogu. I am a Business studies student at Whitefield. I would like to take a few minutes of your time by completing my questionnaire for my business studies course work about my business survey. 1. Are you male or female? Male Female 2. Which age range are you? Under 20 21-30 31-40 40-above 3. Do you live within this area? Yes No 4. Would you like to visit our fruit shops if provided? Yes No 5. If our new shops were available today, how likely would you be to visit instead of visiting other fruits shops currently available from other companies? Very Likely Moderately Likely Slightly Likely Not at all likely 6. If you are not likely to visit our shop why not? Do not like our services Satisfied with other competing fruits shops currently available Cannot pay for our services and products Not willing to pay or shop with us 7. How important is it convenient to you, when choosing our products? Extremely important Very important Moderately important Slightly important Not at all important 8. Overall are you satisfied with your experience, shopping with us? Extremely satisfied Moderately satisfied Slightly satisfied Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Slightly dissatisfied Moderately dissatisfied Extremely dissatisfied 9. If our new products were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to other? Extremely Likely Very Likely Moderately Likely Slightly Likely Not at all likely 10. If our new service were available today, how likely would you be to use it instead of competing service currently available from other companies? Extremely Likely Very Likely Moderately Likely Slightly Likely Not at all likely 11. If you are not likely to use our new service, why not? Do not need a service like this Do not want a service like this Satisfied with competing service currently available Cannot pay for a service like this Not willing to pay for a service like this 12. How important is it convenient for you, when choosing a service this type of service? Extremely important Very important Moderately important Slightly important Not at all important 13. Overall are you satisfied with your experience using our new service? Moderately satisfied Slightly satisfied Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Slightly dissatisfied Moderately dissatisfied Extremely dissatisfied 14. If our new service were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to others? Extremely likely Very likely Moderately likely Slightly likely Not at all likely 15. How often will you visit my shop if available, having different variety of fresh fruits and vegetables for sell? Daily Weekly Monthly Quarterly In My questionnaire I interviewed a total of 20 people. Below displays the results of each question individually. 1. Are you male or female? * Male8 * Female12 2. Which age range are you? * Under 2010 * 21-305 * 31-403 * 40-above2 3. Do you live within this area? * Yes16 * No4 4. Would you like to visit my fruit shops if provided? * Yes12 * No8 5. If my new shop were available today, how likely would you be to visit instead of visiting other fruits shops currently available from other companies? * Very Likely6 * Moderately Likely5 * Slightly Likely4 * Not at all likely5 6. If you are not likely to visit my shop why not? * Do not like my services7 * Satisfied with other fruits shops currently available3 * Cannot pay for my services and products5 * Not willing to pay or shop with us6 7. How important is it convenient to you, when choosing my products? * Extremely important7 * Very important4 * Moderately important5 * Slightly important3 * Not at all important1 8. Overall are you satisfied with your experience, shopping with me? * Extremely satisfied9 * Moderately satisfied4 * Slightly satisfied3 * Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied0 * Slightly dissatisfied3 * Moderately dissatisfied1 * Extremely dissatisfied0 9. If my new products were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to other? * Extremely Likely4 * Very Likely6 * Moderately Likely3 * Slightly Likely4 * Not at all likely4 10. If my new service were available today, how likely would you be to use it instead of competing service currently available from other companies? * Extremely Likely5 * Very Likely3 * Moderately Likely2 * Slightly Likely 7 * Not at all likely3 11. If you are not likely to use my new service, why not? * Do not need a service like this10 * Do not want a service like this 1 * Satisfied with competing service currently available 0 * Cannot pay for a service like this 2 * Not willing to pay for a service like this7 12. How important is it convenient for you, when choosing a service this type of service? * Extremely important13 * Very important3 * Moderately important2 * Slightly important1 * Not at all important1 13. Overall are you satisfied with your experience using my new service? * Moderately satisfied15 * Slightly satisfied0 * Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied1 * Slightly dissatisfied2 * Moderately dissatisfied1 * Extremely dissatisfied1 14. If my new service were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to others? * Extremely likely10 * Very likely3 * Moderately likely2 * Slightly likely2 * Not at all likely3 15. How often will you visit my shop if available, having different variety of fresh fruits and vegetables for sell? * Daily15 * Weekly1 * Monthly2 * Quarterly3 1. The Gender of the people interviewed for my business surveys This pie chart shows the gender of people I interviewed for my business survey, which shows that 40 percent of them are male and 60 percent of them are female. 2. The age range for the people I interviewed for my business survey. This pie chart shows the age range for the people I interviewed for my business survey, which shows that 50 percent of the people I interviewed are under 20, 10 percent of them are 40 above, 15 percent of them are between 31 – 40 and 25 percent of them are between 21-30. 3. This is people that live and doesn’t live in that area but were interviewed by me for my business survey. This pie chart shows the people that live and doesn’t live in that area but they were still interviewed by me because of my business survey, which shows that 20 percent of the people I interviewed don’t live in this area and 60 percent of them live in this area. 4. Would you like to visit my fruits shops if provided? This pie chart show the amount of people who are willing to make a visit to my shops when they are provided and also people who are not willing to make a visit to my shop, which shows that 40 percent of the people I interviewed are not willing to visit my shop and 60 percent of them are willing to visit my shop. 5. If my new shop were available today, how likely would you be to visit instead of visiting other fruits shops currently available from other companies? This pie chart shows the range of people who are willing to make themselves regular customers to my shop and also visit my shop regularly, which shows that 30 percent of the people I interviewed are very likely to visit my shop, 25 percent of them are moderately likely, 20 percent of them are slightly likely and 25 percent of them are not likely at all to visit my shop. 6. If you are not likely to visit my shop why not? This pie chart shows the reasons about people who are not likely to visit my shop and why they are not likely to visit my shop, which shows that 33 percent of the people I interviewed do not like our service, 14 percent of them are just satisfied with other fruits shops currently available, 24 percent of them cannot pay for our service and products and 29 percent are not willing to pay or shop with us. 7. How important is it convenient to you, when choosing my products This pie chart show how important it is convenient for people when choosing my product, which shows that 35 percent of the people I interviewed said that my product are extremely important to them, 20 percent said it is very important to them, 25 percent said it is moderately important to them, 15 percent said it is slightly important to them and 5 percent said it is not important to them at all. 8. Overall are you satisfied with your  experience, shopping with me? This pie chart shows the overall rate of people who satisfied or dissatisfied with shopping with me, which shows that 45 percent of the people I interviewed are Extremely satisfied with shopping us, 20 percent of them are moderately satisfied, 20 percent are of them are moderately satisfied, 15 percent of them are slightly satisfied 0 percent of them are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 15percent of them are slightly dissatisfied, 5 percent of them are moderately dissatisfied and 0 percent are extremely dissatisfied. 9. If my new product were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to others? This pie chart shows the people who are likely to recommend my product to others if it was available, which shows that 19 percent of the people I interviewed are extremely likely to recommend my products to others, 29 percent of them are very likely, 14 percent of them are moderately likely, 19 percent of them are slightly likely and 19 percent of them are not likely at all to recommend my product to others. 10. If my new service were available today, how likely would you be to use it instead of competing service currently available from other companies? This pie chart shows the people who are happy and likely to use my services, which shows that 25 percent of the people I interviewed are extremely likely to use my services instead of competing services from other companies, 15 percent of them are very likely to use my service, 10 percent of them are moderately likely to use my service, 35 percent of them are slightly likely to use my service and 15 percent of them are not likely at all to service my service provided. 11. If you are not likely to use my new service, why not? This pie chart shows people, who are not likely to use my service and why  they are not likely to use it. It shows that 50 percent of the people I interviewed do not need a service like this, 5 percent of them don’t want a service like this, 0 percent of them are satisfied with competing service currently available, 10 percent of them cannot pay for a service like this and 35 percent of them are not willing to pay for a service like this. 12. How important is it convenient for you, when choosing a service this type of service? This pie chart shows how important it is convenient for people when choosing this type of service, which shows that 65 percent of the people I interviewed, said that my service is extremely important to them, 15 percent of them said it very important, 10 percent of the said it is moderately important, 5 percent of them said it is slightly important, and 5 percent of them said that my service is not important to them at all. 13. Overall are you satisfied with your experience using my new service? This pie chart shows the overall rate of people who are satisfied or dissatisfied with my service, which shows that 75 percent of the people I interviewed are moderately satisfied with my service, 0 percent of them are slightly satisfied, 5 percent of them are slightly satisfied nor dissatisfied, 10 percent of them are slightly dissatisfied, 5 percent of them are moderately dissatisfied, and 5 percent of them are extremely dissatisfied with my service. 14. If my new service were available today, how likely would you be to recommend it to others? This pie chart shows the people who are likely to recommend my new service to others if it was available, which shows that 50 percent of the people I interviewed are extremely likely to recommend my new service to others, 15 percent of them are very likely, 10 percent of them are moderately likely, 10 percent of them are slightly likely, and15 percent of them are not likely at all to recommend my new service to others if available. 15. How often will you visit my shop if available, having different variety of fresh fruits and vegetables for sell? This pie chart shows the total amount of people who are willing to visit my shop daily, weekly, monthly, or quarterly, which shows that 71 percent of the people I interviewed are happy to visit my shop daily, 5 percent of them are happy to visit my shop weekly, 10 percent of them are happy to visit my shop monthly and 14 percent of them are happy to visit my shop quarterly. My Target Market My Market target is for the children, Tourist and adults to be aware of the current advice of five portions of eating different fruits and vegetables a day. Because fewer of us know that five portion should come from a variety of sources every day, so that they gain the maximum benefit from fruit, eat it fresh and if the skins are edible, eat them too and also help people balance their vegetable intake between the orange/red and green varieties. Conclusion In this part of my P2 Coursework, I have identified my target market by doing a market research for my business and preparing a questionnaire for my business survey to get people reactions towards my business.

Critical Period for Language Acquisition Chomsky

Critical Period for Language Acquisition Chomsky Chomsky claimed that there was a critical period for language learning which was first proposed by Eric Lenneberg. He claimed, as Cook Newson (1996:301) explain, that there is a critical period during which the human mind is able to learn language; before or after this period language cannot be acquired in a natural fashion. Although the rare cases of feral children who had been deprived of first language in early childhood seems to support the idea of critical period but it is not known for definite if deprivation was the only reason for their language learning difficulties as Sampson (1997:37) points out, it is not certain if children in cases of extreme deprivation have trouble learning language because they have missed their so-called critical period or if it is because of the extreme trauma they have experienced.Although Chomsky was a very influential and successful nativist, Sampson (1997:159) claims his theories were given a helping hand by external circumstances. Behaviourist Theory and Chomskys Innatism Further, reasoning the success of these new nativist writers Sampson says When Chomsky originally spelled out an argument, the reader would assess it and might detect its fallacies; but when recent writers refer to something as having been established back in the 1960s-70s, most readers are likely to take this on trust, for lack of time and energy to check the sources.Finally, on the subject of nature vs. nurture debate, which so heavily involves Chomsky, it seems impossible to distinguish whether language is only acquired due to environmental exposure or simply due to innate faculties. From the evidence it seems that humans possess innate capabilities which enable linguistic development, but the correct environment, with exposure to adult language throughout the critical period, also seems to be necessary in order for a child to develop and become a proficient speaker. Singleton evaluates the scenario in these words, The one qualification that might be entered with regard to such evidence is that deprivation of language input during the phase in a childs life when cognitive development is at its most intense may have quite general psychological/cognitive effects, and that it may be these general effects that are reflected in later language development rather that effects relating specifically to a critical period for language (Singleton 1989, 54). The behaviourist theory is also contradicted by the fact that young children very often make intelligent mistakes as they learn a language. As they progress beyond the two-word stage, they begin to understand and try to express more complex concepts, such as plurality, past tense and negation. Mistakes such as sheeps, goed, and I no want to, are all formed from formulae in the English language. In the first case, the child has grasped the general rule that /s/ at word endings implies more than one, but has not yet distinguished irregularities. The same applies to the second; /ed/ is a regularised past tense ending. In the third instance, the child definitely understands the concept of negation, but cannot yet distinguish between the different forms of expressing it (such as do not, dont; will not, wont; no; none etc) or completely comprehend the complex syntax involved. (Foster-Cohen, 1999, 89) If children only learned through repetition and imitation, would they be able to produce u tterances with grammar applied that they would never have heard their parents use? Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Therefore there must be more to a childs linguistic development than simply social factors. Theories suggesting that the human brain has a unique capacity for language which is genetic and exists from before birth include Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device, Piaget and Cognitive theory and Lenneberg and the Critical Period. The Language Acquisition Devise (LAD), according to Chomsky, is an inborn mechanism facilitating the learning of language, consisting of neural wirings and brain structures unique to human beings. A child does not need to be taught language formally, but simply needs to be exposed to adult speech. This effortless discovery of the language system is due to LAD. Chomsky, 1986, 118) The four properties of LAD are: Ability to distinguish speech sounds from over environmental sounds Ability to organise linguistic events into various properties Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible Ability to engage in constant evaluation of developing linguistic systems, such as generating new sentences and selecting the correct tense. Chomsky argues that language develops in a uniform way, which is genetically determined, and that learning develops in an individual with the trigger of experience. The human brain is ready for language intake from birth, and exposure to adult speech activates it. An ancient experiment where an emperor ordered for a group of children to grow up in isolation with no exposure to language resulted in none of them developing language for communication. This shows that exposure to adult language is essential for linguistic development, as language will not appear without it. A childs language develops through hypothesis testing: deciding an utterance and trying it on parents. Through trial and error, their speech will eventually correspond to adult speech. Chomskys LAD theory therefore does tie in with the behaviourist theory, but maintains that language acquisition is much more complex then simply imitation because innate faculties are also involved. If language development is dependent on the environment triggering the LAD, what is it that determined how and when children learn what? Certainly, the same stages of linguistic acquisition occur for all children (i.e. holophrastic, two-word, telegraphic), in the same order and at roughly similar ages.Piagets Cognitive Theory identifies language as an element of knowledge acquisition. He believed that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures replacing one another by a process of inclusion of lower, less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. This means that childrens logic and thinking methods are originally different to adults. Piagets cognitive theory suggests language is one of many cognitive behaviours, and it emerges from cognitive development or learning to think and problem solve. However, this theory is contradicted by the cocktail party chatterer children. Observations of these children have suggested that an ability to cope with language structure is largely separate from general intelligence. They talk for the sake of talking and their sentences may not make sense. However, as the behaviourist theory might have suggested, they are not simply repeating phrases they have heard, because they make grammatical mistakes such as three tickets were gave out by a police last year which they would not have heard said. A theory which would explain why these cocktail party chatterers could be able to speak fluently even with a very low non-verbal I.Q. is Lennebergs Critical Period Theory. He considered language to be an example of maturationally controlled behaviour, like walking and sexual behaviour, which is genetically programmed to emerge at a particular stage in an individuals life. Learning is required, but cannot be significantly hastened by coaching. Aitchinson Reith tells us no external event or conscious decision causes it, and a regular sequence of milestones can be charted. When the brain is in this period, lateralisation occurs, when the two sides of the brain develop specialised functions. Lenneberg recognised that in an adult brain, language is found only in the left hemisphere, whereas in infancy it is more spread out, meaning the infant brain has equipotential. Feral Children Phenomenon So-called feral children, those that have had no exposure to language in their critical period have helped to credit Lennebergs theory. Genie is an example. She was kept in appallingly deprived conditions, with almost no social contact or exposure to language until she was found at age thirteen. Attempts were made to teach her language, but although she progressed to the two-word and three-word stages like most children, her lack of morphology was never remedied. She only grasped simple grammatical concepts. Had and gave where her only past tenses which were used rarely and her only auxiliary was be; never have or must. She never used the demonstratives there or it although there were attempts at the definite article the. Genie demonstrates that after the critical period, pragmatic skills can still be developed but the structural knowledge of language is lost. She suggests that a child must be exposed to language during the critical period, and that after puberty language acquisition cannot reach its normal end point. (Snow, Hoefnagel, 1978, 1116) This suggests that universal grammar is no longer operative as an LAD. About Genies case, De Villiers is of the opinion that It is unnecessary to explain that such circumstances did not leave Genie intact in body and mind. However, although she was malnourished, there was no evidence of physical abnormalities sufficient to account for her behaviour, for she had adequate hearing, vision and eye-hand coordination. She was severely disturbed emotionally, having frequent but silent tantrums, yet there were no other symptoms of childhood autism. The most likely explanation was the chronic social deprivation she had suffered for those twelve years (De Villiers De Villiers 1978, p.215) Critical Period and Language Acquisition What the critical period theory does fail to emphasise is the way in which children learn language, concentrating more on the scientific explanation for why they are able to. The fact that children definitely need exposure to adult speech in order to learn language has already been discussed. But the reasons that humans, as social animals, need language have not been covered by any of the previously mentioned theories. Through studying his own son, Halliday identified five main purposes children need language for. These functional frameworks can be distinguished from childrens utterances even before recognisable words can be articulated, i.e. in the childs proto-language. Interpersonal functions are when the child is increasing and extending his capacity for engaging linguistically with others, for opening and sustaining dialogue with them. These include Instrumental, to satisfy material needs, for example /na/ when requesting an object. This is the I want function of language. The regulatory function is used to control behaviour of others, such as /ee/ meaning do that again! This is the do what I say function of language. Ideological functions are the aspects of adult language systems concerned with giving shape to and expressing events and the external world, and also the internal world of consciousness. (Jackson Stockwell, 1996, 170) The heuristic function is where a child uses language to explore its environment, such as requesting the name of and object. (Harley, 1989, 166). This is the tell me why function of language. The personal function enables the child to communicate his identity by expressing pleasure or interest, for example /a/ for thats nice. This is the here I come function of language. Hallidays language functions propose that both proto-language and later linguistic development can be identified by frameworks. These frameworks are factors which are important for humans to establish relationships with others, satisfy material wishes and to find out about the environment in which they live. All of the theories discussed in this essay have their merits, because the reason humans learn language and the way in which they do so are determined by many factors. Humans do uniquely possess innate faculties which enable linguistic development, but the correct environment, with exposure to adult language throughout the critical period, must be present in order for a child to develop and become a proficient adult speaker. Lexical Development Lexical development also continues after puberty, and, according to some suggestions, may continue throughout our lives, as people are continually interested in learning new things (Singleton 1989, p.56). Diller (1971) points out that twelve year olds have a recognition of about 135,000 words, Harvard freshmen know about 200,000 words, the typical thirty year oold PhD student know about 2,500,000 words. Vocabulary development continues in a natural, almost unnoticed fashion as long as one lives and is interested in new things. There have been several studies that strongly support Lennebergs hypothesis. Among the most prominent are feral children. Feral children are persons that have been linguistically isolated. When they were found, most were unable to pick up on language abilities. These cases propose that there may be a critical age in which any child who has somehow missed out on learning a language will never fully master one. (Macwhinney, 2004, 910) Genie never learned proper grammar or sentence structure. Other cases of feral children include: Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron (who was found at age 11) and Kamala of Midnapore (who was found at age 8), both never learned language correctly either. Therefore, although Lennebergs hypothesis is not proven, feral children forcefully support it. Critical Period Hypothesis and Empirical Evaluation The Critical Period Hypothesis is further supported by experiments about second language acquisition. Lenneberg believed that the language acquisition device, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time (p. 19). Aitchison (1998, p.88) goes for a general outcome by saying that young children who start signing early because of their deaf parents end up more proficient that those who have hearing parents. The Ildefonso case is probably used against the hypothesis of upper limit critical period because he has shown nearly full competence in sign language despite his late start which was far beyond puberty. Psycholinguistic, a branch of linguistics theory covers the cognitive process that discusses the process as how to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structure, as well as the process to make it possible to understand utterances, words, texts, etc. It concentrates in the internal process of acquiring language and their effect on language learning. Whereas, adults can perform and develop many aspects of new ways of language and vocabulary (Singleton:1989,p.55) One internal factor is the development of Interlanguage, which is developed by learners of a second language who have not become fully proficient, but are only approximating the target language. Learners use some features of their first language during speaking and writing and they also create their own innovations; it is a system based upon the best attempt for learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. Interlanguage is particularly based on the learners experience on the target language. The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralization and simplification. Language learning acquisition is a gradual process where errors will be unavoidable, but learners will slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers. Educators can give appropriate feedback after checking learners interlanguage, and assure learners that making mistakes is a procedure of development from the mother tongue to the second language. Universal Grammar Orientation Universal Grammar is another theory that explains failure of second language competence. It is said that Universal Grammar is a natural unconscious ability present at birth, that is a knowledge of grammar. This does not imply that a person does not make mistakes, but that they do make mistakes but irregular types of errors, and somehow a person has the ability to accept these errors and re-apply them. The set of grammatical rules are learned through conditioning, meaning that if a person when learning their mother language never heard anyone make mistakes, then he or she learns it that way. With Universal Grammar set in place at birth, the person is able to take on whichever language he or she is exposed to, as all languages have common elements and are inter-adaptable. This theory does not state that all human languages have the same grammar, or that all humans are encoded with a structure that underlies all surface grammatical expressions of each and every specific human language. But it implies that Universal Grammar suggests a set of rules that would explain how a person acquires their language or how they construct valid sentences of their language. (Chomsky, 1972, 37) This theory explains that grammar is the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are properties of all human language. Second Language Learning And Critical Period Learners begin by transferring the sounds and meaning, words order into the learning of the second language. By doing this an obstruction of the second language acquisition starts to raise, the learner starts to confuse the grammatical rules of the first language with the second language creating an incorrect language learning process. When learning a second language, a learner uses this language transfer concept as a strategy to have an uncomplicated language learning process. The learner uses parts of the analysis of one language in order to manage with the unclear grammatical rules of the target language. Learners when presenting or expressing their ideas, opinions and statements in the target language, tend to consider and apply the same grammatical structures of their first language; this transferring interferes with the proper application of the grammatical structure of the target language. The Monitor Model is another likely explanation for this second language incompetence. T his theory is characterized of five hypotheses. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis involves that there are two independent systems of second language performance; acquisition is the result of a subconscious process similar to childrens mother language acquisition and requires life-like second language interaction, which concentrates on communication rather than accuracy. On the other hand, learning occurs through formal instruction and includes a conscious process, which results in knowledge of the target language. Learned knowledge permits learners to read and listen more so that the acquisition is effectual. The Natural Order Hypothesis; suggests that just as first language learners, second language learners seem to acquire the characteristics of the target language in an obvious order. Contrary to intuition, the rules which are easier to state and to learn are not necessarily the first to acquire. It is observed that the natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned in class. Monitor Hypothesis The Monitor Hypothesis; states that a learners learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. In other words, while only the acquired system is able to produce spontaneous speech, the learned system is used to check what is being spoken, this occurs before or after the interaction is made, but not at the same time. The interlocutor therefore monitors their spontaneous speech using what they have learned. The Monitor Model then predicts faster initial progress by adults than children, as adults use their monitor when producing statements in the target language before having acquired the ability for natural performance, and adults will input more into conversations earlier than children. Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis states that only understandable input will produce acquisition of the target language. It is implied that learners must be exposed to input that is higher than their actual level of knowledge of the target language in order to produce a result in the acquisition of the target language. Because some instances learners do not posses that higher level of input, the development and improvement of the target language will not occur. The Affective Filter Hypothesis affirms that the learners emotional state acts as flexible filters that freely permit or obstruct input necessary to acquisition. It is said that adolescence and puberty are not effective periods for second language acquisition due to the hormonal changes that occur during that development period. The Sociolinguistic theory is concerned with the effect of all aspects of society in the learning process of the target language such as cultural norms, expectations and context on the way language is applied. It also concentrates on the different types of language variation, ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of language knowledge and how all these factors have an impact on second language learning process. The Acculturation Model which is a likely reason for the failure of second language competence refers to the process of adjustment to a new culture, on how new language learners acclimatize not only to the target language but also to the culture of that language. This model refers to immigrants that are in second language surroundings, but it could also apply to new language learners and the way it affects them to also acquire a new culture. (Sagae, MacWhinney, 2004, 119). For some learners the idea of modifying and adding another culture in their life could cause difficu lties in their language learning process. One important distinguishing factor in the acquisition of second language is fossilization which refers to the permanent cessation of progress towards the target language, despite all attempts and exposure to the target language. (McLaughlin, 1985, 209). An aspect that has a relevance to fossilization is motivation; there exists lack of empathy with the target language, the culture and the native speakers. Accommodation Theory The Accommodation theory implies the way learners may adapt their speech in multilingual settings. This theory suggests the way learners adjust their way of interacting with people of different culture with different languages in order to facilitate communication. It also states that: is the way the learners social group (ingroup) identifies itself in the target language community (outgroup). If these two groups do not have a positive effect on one another, or they do not connect and identify themselves with each other, there will be a consequence in the acquisition of the second language. When learning a new language, learners need to feel that they belong in this outgroup, they need to feel that they are part of this new culture and that they feel a cordial welcoming from this outgroup; but if none of these intentions are met then learners will not have an effective and productive learning acquisition process. Social identity is another sociolinguistic issue that has a great impact in second language competence. Social identity is the way in which learners understand themselves in relation to others, and how they view their past and their future. Structural inequalities can limit leaners exposure to the target language as well as their opportunities to practice it. (Asher Garcia, 1969, 338). The input that learners acquire could be received from different sources such as; the teacher, textbooks, individuals, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, etc. And if these resources are not accurate in their language transmission then the input might not be logical to the learners and the learners intake will be erroneous which will result in the failure of language competence. (Collier, 1989, 523). Conclusion In conclusion, numerous linguists believe that there is a Critical Period in which humans can acquire language. The theory proposed by Lenneberg about a limited time in which language can be acquired is supported by large amounts of research. Although many challenge this hypothesis with the theory of Universal Grammar, both are unproven. Studies have determined that invalid conversational interaction affects the acquisition of second language, which in result could decrease the pace of language acquisition. Invalid interaction is the product of inaccurate input, which could cause a decline in the learners participation and motivation to produce language properly. The role of instruction has been examined as the role of focus on the grammatical forms of language in instruction. Many factors such as; internal or external factors can modify the way learners acquire and learn the target language; the above stated factors can obstruct second language acquisition competence. However, learners can manipulate and be capable of attaining the knowledge of the second language if their perspective of the target language is adjusted. Learners with low motivation and low language confidence will have high filters which will obstruct the achievement of second language acquisition. There are other variables in second language acquisition process. Aptitude refers to the ability and capacity that a learner has towards the language. The attitude the learner posses towards the target language, how the learner feels, the posture they have towards the target language. Age has also an influence in second language acquisition, as it is stated above adolescents might have an increase difficulty level when it comes to acquisition of language due to the hormonal changes, but at the same time they perceive language faster than adults due to their neurological development. As for adults, they become more appropriate for the study of a second language because of their maturity, but at the same time, their learning process struggles due to their developmental age.

History Of Crime And Social Construction

History Of Crime And Social Construction This paper will evaluate the statement is crime a social construct? In order to evaluate this statement social construction as well as the history of crime and its recorded beginnings have to be analysed accordingly and different sociological views taken into consideration. It will also look into the social construction of the Official Crime Statistics and the theories that blame society for crime. Crime is the product of the social structure; it is embedded in the very fibres of society. In this essay, I aim to explore different theories as to why crime exists within society and how we as a society therefore construct it. Crime is a social construct; it is always in society and is on the increase. It is inevitable. Where does it come from? It comes from legislation, from the making of laws. Deviance can be simply defined as fundamentally norm-breaking behaviour and crime simply, essentially deviant behaviour which is against criminal law. However, defining crime is not as straightforward as it seems, it is a contested concept and this could be due to laws changing over time and place and subsequently changing the definition of crime. There is very rarely a unanimous agreement about what criminal is, for example one persons terrorist maybe anothers freedom fighter. However, there are other behaviours which may not be considered criminal in law but which many of us may think of as crimes, this therefore describes deviance as an act that breaks the norms held by the majority in society. There have been many biological and psychological theories of criminal behaviour. This essay focuses on the arguments that no behaviour is inherently criminal and society creates crime by making rules and consequently breaking those rules constitutes crime. Crime and Punishment In 1998 Croall explained that there is a very narrow borderline between what is considered as criminal and normal, legal or illegal. For instance many people often break the speed limit but would not label themselves as criminal. It is the social problems within communities that reflect what people are concerned about presently, what they find undesirable and need to be removed. Depending on the situation these problems are subject to change and can bring new legislation into action, therefore changing the laws. Spector and Kitsuse described social problems as the activities of individuals or groups making assertions of grievances and claims with respect to some putative conditions. The emergence of a social problem is contingent upon the organisation of activities asserting the need for eradicating, ameliorating, or otherwise changing some condition. (Spector and Kitsuse 1987: 75-76). Pfohl showed in 1977 that it was only in the early 60s that child abuse became a problem and something had to be done. Previous to this children were abused and beaten and it was never brought to the publics attention, it was only when medical specialists acted out in order to make this condition become a major public problem (Hestor and Elgin 1992). This could be described as a moral panic; a term which was first used by Jock Young in a 1971 article published describing the publics concern about drug use. According to Thompson moral panic has five stages. Firstly a threat to values or interests, then the thre at is portrayed by the media, this increases the publics concern which in turn forces the authorities to respond and finally make a change, such as amend or introduce new legislation and hence, create more crime opportunity. This is crime being socially constructed. Classicists believe that punishment should be proportionate to crime and looked upon as a deterrent. It is believed that it controls and direct behaviour by affecting rational behaviour. George Void (1958) stated that An exact state of punishment for equal acts without reference to the individual involved and with no attention to the question of special circumstances under which the act came about. Beccaria described crime as injurious to society; basically punishment given to criminals should be focused on the harm it has done to the society as a whole. He also claimed that criminal law should be clear and rational in order to guide society. Bentham suggested that all punishments should be proportionate to the crime committed. These ideas fail to take into account the reasoning for the crime being committed and assume that there is a unanimous set of values. Positivism developed due to new scientific developments, it intended to search, explain and predict future patterns of social behaviour. It suggested that a persons behaviour was biological and that they had no control over how they acted. Lombroso focussed on criminals and concluded that a criminal was a lower form of human evolution and had certain characteristics. Positivists assumed that there is an primary agreement within society with crime as the key violation and that criminals are only from certain social groups, ignoring the values, cultures or structures of the groups. The Positivist approach is simply about a deviants reaction to external forces beyond their control. The followers of the Interactionist theory, on the other hand, reject this positivist approach and say that it is due to the internal factors of the individual. Emile Durkheim believed that morality could be explained in terms of social interaction. According to Durkheim a certain amount of crime is normal in any society; he claimed that it plays a number of important functions. He described an adaptive function which described the idea that crime presents new ideas and practices into society hence allowing change rather than stagnation. He then describes a boundary maintenance function; this reinforces social values and norms and helps to reiterate the difference between right and wrong. He explained that crime is something inherently social in character and can only be explained through reference to social factors. His ideas made us reconsider the definitions of crime and he demonstrated them through analysing suicide statistics. He concluded that different social conditions can influence propensity to commit suicide amongst certain groups and between different societies and explained that this is the case for other crimes. Functionalists see crime deviance in society as a function, in that it serves to remind us, through public condemnation of those who have broken the rules, of our shared values and norms. Furthermore, they suggest that crime is a result of structural tensions and a lack of moral regulations within society. If the aspirations held by individuals and groups in society do not coincide with the available rewards, this disparity between desires and fulfilment will be felt in the deviant motivations of some of its members. This was the basis for Mertons Anomie theory. (Robert Merton 1957) The Marxism theory however, is structured towards the accumulation of wealth rather than social need. Edwin H Sutherland was the first sociologist to study this area known as White Collar Crime in 1949. Let us now look at crimes of the powerful and the less powerful. There are two main points; deviance is a product of unequal power relations and equality in general. Despite the fact that the law is in favour of the dominant class, some of its members do break the rules for their own gain. Power and equality affect the quality of deviant acts. Thus, people that are more powerful are more likely to engage in profitable deviant acts such as corporate crime i.e. bribery and corruption in business and politics, misconduct by professionals such as lawyers etc. On the other hand, the powerless are more likely to commit less profitable deviant deeds such as burglary, theft and armed robbery. (Ermann and Lundman 1996) Power, or rather social class, is therefore the key element which determine s the type of deviance people are likely to carry out. The powerful are more likely to commit deviant acts because of something that is called Relative Deprivation. This is the feeling of being unable to achieve the high standards they set for themselves, compared with the powerless, whose standards are typically low. Their aspirations are so high that they become less achievable. The more that people experience this Relative Deprivation, the more likely they are to commit deviant acts. (Cookson and Persill 1985) Furthermore, the elite have more legitimate opportunities than the poor worker to commit crime i.e. A banker will have better opportunities to defraud customers for instance, and because of his status, the crime is less likely to be detected, whereas the poor worker would probably have to resort to robbing the bank, a much more visible crime. Furthermore, the powerful are subjected to weaker social control. They have more influence in the making and enforcement of control. The laws against higher status crime, the White Collar crime, are therefore relatively lenient and rarely enforced, but the laws against crime which is committed by those with a lower status, are harsher and more often enforced because they are so visible and detected much more easily. The activities of White Collar crime occur on a daily basis, but there is no public outcry or moral panics about it and therefore no legislation made, whereas, street crime attracts massive law enforcement. As Jeffrey Reiman (2001) s o aptly stated, The rich get richer and the poor get prison. Interactionism was quite popular from 1960s to 1970s. Max Weber and George Herbert Mead favour the Interactionist approach and suggest that crime is a social process, that crime is an interaction between the victim, the police/officials and the offender. Crime is shaped by the nature of this interaction and this selective labelling, stigmatisation, negative labelling of those without power and more vulnerable. This approach focuses upon the interaction between deviance and those who define it as such, hence the Labelling Theory. Howard F Becker, the founder of this theory, argues that society creates deviance by making rules. Rules that when broken, constitute deviance, and by labelling those particular people as deviants, they are also labelling them as outsiders. Therefore, it is not the act of the person, but rather a consequence of applying the rules by others to an offender. Deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label. Becker suggests that in one sense there is no such thing as a deviant act. An act only becomes deviant when people define it as such, when they label it as such. Such labels largely override their status as workers, friends, parents etc and others see them negatively. This labelling of people who commit crime, often results in the denial of an ordinary life to them, and because of this denial, out of necessity, they develop illegitimate routines and often resort to a life of crime. Thus, a criminal career is formed and the only way that they can be a part of society, is by grouping with likewise people, and being part of a different type of society. It may be a criminal society, but at least they fulfil that human need to belong. This process results in what is known as the self-fulfilling prophecy i.e. a person is to be known as a criminal, he/she may as they may as well act that way. The Feminist approach is critical of the mainstream approaches in that they see them as male dominated and this gender bias is part of the structure of the Criminal Justice System, the majority of its personnel being male. Crime is specific to the gender, males being more violent and women committing softer crime such as benefit fraud, shoplifting etc. This approach sees that there is a need for more support and resources for women and that anti-sexist training is necessary in the police force. These sociological theories are intended to apply to both sexes but feminists disagree. For example, Mertons anomie theory assumes that people are inclined to strive for material success, which is true for men but not necessarily for women, although this is on the increase. (Merton 1957) In the past women have been socialised differently to men. They are traditionally less interested in achieving material success as their place has been in the home. However, this social construct is changing, because women are being given more equal opportunities, and are more likely to strive for that material success, which would account for some increase in womens crime rates. (Chesney-Lind 1997;Daly and Chesney-Lind1998) This may be an indication that opportunities for women are still far from equal. Anomie theory may apply if this is the case, as the opportunities available to women are lacking in relation to womens increasing desire for independence and material success, therefore causing the disparity that Merton talks about. Furthermore, men and women calculate the risk of arrest differently. Women are more aware of that risk and that awareness becomes a disincentive. Another interesting argument would be that it is a fact that over 90% of people convicted of crime, are male. (John Hagan et al 1996) Between 1971 and 1993 the volume of recorded crime dramatically rose within the UK. This showed the significant rise of major crime most crime committed however, has always been property crime. Despite the publics belief that crime has risen it has in fact fallen considerably since 1993. Property crime is more likely to be committed by juveniles rather than adults and from working class backgrounds rather than middle or higher classes. In 1995 Andy Pilkington noted that the official statistics does not contain a complete record of crime i.e. summary offences. This shows that there is a dark figure of unrecorded crime and that the statistics do not show a true representation. As illustrated during public surveys that showed over 80 percent of crime may not be reported for various reasons and around 40 percent of crimes reported are not recorded and do not end up in the statistics. Holdaway (1988) noted that the official statistics are not facts of crime but are the end product of a co mplex series of decisions and interactions therefore, socially constructed. Interpretivist sociologists such as have argued that the OCS (Official Crime Survey) are a result of selective policing. That the criminal statistics stem from the relation between police officers and suspects. On the other hand it has been shown that social groups receive different treatments from the police. The claim that a high proportion of working class offenders within the statistics are the result of the police negatively stereotyping young working class people hence they are stopped more frequently. Smiths and Grays study of the Metropolitan police suggested that male officers were more likely to stop a male rather than a female. Another study by these also demonstrated that, on average, six out of ten young black people are stopped five times a year. Hoods research showed that almost 80 percent of magistrates are from higher socio economic backgrounds, with almost a complete absence of working class on the bench, another Hood study in 1989 suggested that black males have a 17 percent greater chance of receiving a custodial sentence than white males committing the same offence. Let us now examine how time and space has affected the way that society has constructed crime and deviance. For example, is the death penalty an act of murder? It is in some countries, but not in some US states. Is abortion an act of murder? What about war? Murder exists in some contexts as a crime and not in others. Crime then is a social construct which is ever changing according to time and space. It makes no sense to say that crime is a result of biochemistry only because crime is the result of political decision making, and we can easily change those decisions according to different contexts, without changing our own biochemistry. In an effort to solve the crime problem then, our task is to determine how much of the crime problem is in fact the result of these definitions and political decisions, and what part is the result of broader sociological or biological forces. The government, in its efforts to tackle the crime problem, has little regard for the way that working class people and their environments actually work. Its new measures to be tough on the causes of crime fail to question why these things happen, and hence how they might be prevented. Creeping inequalities in education, the health services, housing and pensions, contribute to the lack of belonging that people feel. This disconnected feeling of our seemingly society-less age can only contribute to the crime problem. It is time to review other methods because the governments endless clamping down on those who already have the least stake in society is not the solution.